[Jahidul Islam]

Good

[Bello Bashir]

Feed formulation and analysis are crucial for maximizing animal health and productivity, minimizing costs, and ensuring environmental sustainability in livestock farming. Proper formulation ensures animals receive the optimal balance of nutrients for growth and reproduction, while analysis verifies the nutritional quality of feed ingredients, preventing deficiencies and economic losses. This leads to efficient feed conversion, better animal performance, and more profitable and sustainable operations.

[Md.Rejuan Hossain]

Pullets should, where possible, have access to friable litter of good quality, such as straw, wood shavings, sand or peat from the time, when they are introduced to the rearing house. Pullets should have access to litter during rearing in order to increase foraging behaviour and to reduce feather pecking.

[Md.Rejuan Hossain]

The main types of sheet metal dies include simple, compound, progressive, combination, and transfer dies, which are classified by the number of operations and stations they use per stroke. Simple dies perform a single operation, while compound dies perform multiple operations at a single station. Progressive dies perform multiple operations over different stations sequentially as the material moves through them. Combination dies combine cutting and forming operations at one stage, and transfer dies move the workpiece from station to station in a single press.

[Md.Rejuan Hossain]

To prevent damage due to moisture, maize must be dried so that the moisture content will be at a safe level for storage. This goes to all agricultural commodities, and maize’s safe moisture content level is at about 13% to 14%.

[Muhammad Ahmad]

Good

[Muhammad Ahmad]

The world poultry industry constantly faces challenges from emerging and re-emerging infectious diseases. These diseases can cause significant economic losses, and some also pose a risk to human health (zoonoses).

The most prominent and concerning emerging and re-emerging poultry diseases include:

Viral Diseases

* Avian Influenza (AI):

* **Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza (HPAI): Strains, particularly subtypes like H5N1, H5N8, and H7N9, are a major global concern. They cause severe disease with high mortality, lead to immediate trade restrictions, and have zoonotic potential (can infect humans).

* Low Pathogenic Avian Influenza (LPAI): Especially the H9N2 subtype, which is widespread and can cause milder symptoms but significantly impacts production, often complicating secondary bacterial infections.

* Newcastle Disease (ND):

* The emergence/re-emergence of highly virulent (velogenic) strains continues to be a persistent threat globally, particularly in areas with lower biosecurity.

* Infectious Bronchitis (IB):

* New variant strains (genotypes) of the Infectious Bronchitis Virus (IBV), like the QX genotype, continually emerge due to genetic mutation, often evading protection provided by existing vaccines.

* Infectious Bursal Disease (IBD or Gumboro Disease):

* The circulation of very virulent (vvIBDV) and novel variant IBDV (nvIBDV) strains can cause severe immunosuppression, making birds more susceptible to other infections.

* Marek’s Disease (MD):

* Though a well-known disease with a vaccine, the emergence of highly virulent strains (vvMDV) in vaccinated flocks necessitates constant vaccine updates and remains a threat.

* Avian Reoviruses (ARV):

* Increased incidence of tenosynovitis/viral arthritis due to the emergence of new genotypes and serotypes.

* Newly Identified Viruses:

* Viruses like Astroviruses causing fatal gout in goslings, Chicken Circovirus, and diverse Avian Gyroviruses are being newly identified in poultry populations.

Bacterial Diseases

* Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR):

* The emergence of Multi-Drug Resistant (MDR) bacterial strains (“superbugs”), often fueled by the use of antibiotics in poultry, is a massive global concern for both poultry health and public health.

* Salmonellosis and Campylobacteriosis:

* While not always emerging in the birds themselves, the continuous high prevalence of zoonotic strains like Salmonella Enteritidis and Campylobacter jejuni in poultry and poultry products makes them a major food safety and public health concern globally.

* Colibacillosis (E. coli Infection):

* Infections caused by pathogenic strains of Escherichia coli (particularly Avian Pathogenic E. coli – APEC) often occur as a secondary complication to viral respiratory diseases, contributing significantly to economic losses.

* Necrotic Enteritis (NE):

* Caused by Clostridium perfringens, this disease has seen a resurgence in many regions following the reduction or removal of antimicrobial growth promoters in feed.

* Mycoplasmosis:

* Mycoplasma gallisepticum and Mycoplasma synoviae continue to be re-emerging respiratory pathogens worldwide.

These issues are often exacerbated by factors such as:

* Intensified global poultry production.

* Rapid pathogen mutation and recombination.

* Increased global trade and movement of birds/products.

* Climate change affecting wild bird migration patterns.

* Gaps in farm biosecurity and surveillance.The world poultry industry constantly faces challenges from emerging and re-emerging infectious diseases. These diseases can cause significant economic losses, and some also pose a risk to human health (zoonoses).
The most prominent and concerning emerging and re-emerging poultry diseases include:
Viral Diseases
* Avian Influenza (AI):
* **Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza (HPAI): Strains, particularly subtypes like H5N1, H5N8, and H7N9, are a major global concern. They cause severe disease with high mortality, lead to immediate trade restrictions, and have zoonotic potential (can infect humans).
* Low Pathogenic Avian Influenza (LPAI): Especially the H9N2 subtype, which is widespread and can cause milder symptoms but significantly impacts production, often complicating secondary bacterial infections.
* Newcastle Disease (ND):
* The emergence/re-emergence of highly virulent (velogenic) strains continues to be a persistent threat globally, particularly in areas with lower biosecurity.
* Infectious Bronchitis (IB):
* New variant strains (genotypes) of the Infectious Bronchitis Virus (IBV), like the QX genotype, continually emerge due to genetic mutation, often evading protection provided by existing vaccines.
* Infectious Bursal Disease (IBD or Gumboro Disease):
* The circulation of very virulent (vvIBDV) and novel variant IBDV (nvIBDV) strains can cause severe immunosuppression, making birds more susceptible to other infections.
* Marek’s Disease (MD):
* Though a well-known disease with a vaccine, the emergence of highly virulent strains (vvMDV) in vaccinated flocks necessitates constant vaccine updates and remains a threat.
* Avian Reoviruses (ARV):
* Increased incidence of tenosynovitis/viral arthritis due to the emergence of new genotypes and serotypes.
* Newly Identified Viruses:
* Viruses like Astroviruses causing fatal gout in goslings, Chicken Circovirus, and diverse Avian Gyroviruses are being newly identified in poultry populations.
Bacterial Diseases
* Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR):
* The emergence of Multi-Drug Resistant (MDR) bacterial strains (“superbugs”), often fueled by the use of antibiotics in poultry, is a massive global concern for both poultry health and public health.
* Salmonellosis and Campylobacteriosis:
* While not always emerging in the birds themselves, the continuous high prevalence of zoonotic strains like Salmonella Enteritidis and Campylobacter jejuni in poultry and poultry products makes them a major food safety and public health concern globally.
* Colibacillosis (E. coli Infection):
* Infections caused by pathogenic strains of Escherichia coli (particularly Avian Pathogenic E. coli – APEC) often occur as a secondary complication to viral respiratory diseases, contributing significantly to economic losses.
* Necrotic Enteritis (NE):
* Caused by Clostridium perfringens, this disease has seen a resurgence in many regions following the reduction or removal of antimicrobial growth promoters in feed.
* Mycoplasmosis:
* Mycoplasma gallisepticum and Mycoplasma synoviae continue to be re-emerging respiratory pathogens worldwide.
These issues are often exacerbated by factors such as:
* Intensified global poultry production.
* Rapid pathogen mutation and recombination.
* Increased global trade and movement of birds/products.
* Climate change affecting wild bird migration patterns.
* Gaps in farm biosecurity and surveillance.

[Muhammad Ahmad]

The main limitations regarding the use of canola meal and rapeseed meal, particularly as animal feed, stem from the presence of anti-nutritional factors and certain nutritional differences when compared to other protein sources like soybean meal.

Here is a breakdown of the key limitations:

1. Anti-Nutritional Factors

* Glucosinolates: These are sulfur and nitrogen-containing compounds present in both rapeseed and canola.

* Rapeseed Meal (Older Varieties): Historically had very high levels, leading to reduced feed palatability, depressed growth rate, and an enlarged thyroid gland (goiter) in livestock, especially non-ruminants (poultry, swine).

* Canola Meal (“Double-Zero Rapeseed”): Bred to have significantly lower glucosinolate levels (less than 30 \mu \text{mol/g}), which greatly reduces their negative impact and allows for higher inclusion rates in animal diets. However, high levels of inclusion can still be limited by the remaining glucosinolates.

* Erucic Acid: Found in the oil portion, older rapeseed varieties were high in Erucic acid (High-Erucic Acid Rapeseed or HEAR), which is mildly toxic and can cause growth depression. Canola varieties, however, are specifically bred to have very low erucic acid (less than 2% in the oil).

* Sinapine: This phenolic compound can cause a “fishy” taint in the eggs of certain brown-shelled laying hens (due to a genetic defect that prevents the hen from breaking down a sinapine metabolite).

* Phytate: A form of phosphorus storage, phytate binds to minerals (like calcium, iron, zinc) and some amino acids, reducing their bioavailability. Rapeseed and canola meal are high in phytate, reducing phosphorus availability.

2. Nutritional and Compositional Differences

* High Fiber and Low Energy: Canola meal and rapeseed meal generally have a higher crude fiber content (due to the hull) and consequently a lower available energy content compared to soybean meal, which is a major competitor. This limits their inclusion, particularly in high-energy diets for poultry and young monogastrics.

* Lower Crude Protein: The crude protein content of canola meal is typically lower (around 36-39%) than that of soybean meal (44-48%).

* Amino Acid Profile:

* Canola meal is lower in the essential amino acid lysine than soybean meal.

* It is a better source of the sulfur-containing amino acids, methionine and cysteine, which is a complementary advantage when used with soybean meal.

* Processing Variability: The nutritional quality and amino acid digestibility can vary significantly depending on the cultivar, growing conditions, and, crucially, the oil extraction method (e.g., solvent extraction vs. expeller-pressed) and heat treatment during processing. Overheating can damage heat-sensitive amino acids like lysine.

In summary, while canola meal (from low-glucosinolate, low-erucic acid varieties) has overcome most of the severe limitations of traditional rapeseed meal, its use in feed is still limited by its lower energy, higher fiber, and the remaining levels of anti-nutritional factors like glucosinolates and phytate.The main limitations regarding the use of canola meal and rapeseed meal, particularly as animal feed, stem from the presence of anti-nutritional factors and certain nutritional differences when compared to other protein sources like soybean meal.
Here is a breakdown of the key limitations:
1. Anti-Nutritional Factors
* Glucosinolates: These are sulfur and nitrogen-containing compounds present in both rapeseed and canola.
* Rapeseed Meal (Older Varieties): Historically had very high levels, leading to reduced feed palatability, depressed growth rate, and an enlarged thyroid gland (goiter) in livestock, especially non-ruminants (poultry, swine).
* Canola Meal (“Double-Zero Rapeseed”): Bred to have significantly lower glucosinolate levels (less than 30 \mu \text{mol/g}), which greatly reduces their negative impact and allows for higher inclusion rates in animal diets. However, high levels of inclusion can still be limited by the remaining glucosinolates.
* Erucic Acid: Found in the oil portion, older rapeseed varieties were high in Erucic acid (High-Erucic Acid Rapeseed or HEAR), which is mildly toxic and can cause growth depression. Canola varieties, however, are specifically bred to have very low erucic acid (less than 2% in the oil).
* Sinapine: This phenolic compound can cause a “fishy” taint in the eggs of certain brown-shelled laying hens (due to a genetic defect that prevents the hen from breaking down a sinapine metabolite).
* Phytate: A form of phosphorus storage, phytate binds to minerals (like calcium, iron, zinc) and some amino acids, reducing their bioavailability. Rapeseed and canola meal are high in phytate, reducing phosphorus availability.
2. Nutritional and Compositional Differences
* High Fiber and Low Energy: Canola meal and rapeseed meal generally have a higher crude fiber content (due to the hull) and consequently a lower available energy content compared to soybean meal, which is a major competitor. This limits their inclusion, particularly in high-energy diets for poultry and young monogastrics.
* Lower Crude Protein: The crude protein content of canola meal is typically lower (around 36-39%) than that of soybean meal (44-48%).
* Amino Acid Profile:
* Canola meal is lower in the essential amino acid lysine than soybean meal.
* It is a better source of the sulfur-containing amino acids, methionine and cysteine, which is a complementary advantage when used with soybean meal.
* Processing Variability: The nutritional quality and amino acid digestibility can vary significantly depending on the cultivar, growing conditions, and, crucially, the oil extraction method (e.g., solvent extraction vs. expeller-pressed) and heat treatment during processing. Overheating can damage heat-sensitive amino acids like lysine.
In summary, while canola meal (from low-glucosinolate, low-erucic acid varieties) has overcome most of the severe limitations of traditional rapeseed meal, its use in feed is still limited by its lower energy, higher fiber, and the remaining levels of anti-nutritional factors like glucosinolates and phytate.

[Muhammad Ahmad]

Yes, it is possible to inhibit or significantly reduce the vertical transmission of diseases even when the breeder flock is positive. However, it is an intensive and complex process, and the specific strategies vary greatly depending on the type of disease (bacterial/mycoplasmal vs. viral).

The ultimate goal for primary breeders is typically eradication, but for commercial operations, the focus shifts to minimizing transmission and protecting the progeny.

Here are the primary methods used:

1. Management of Bacterial/Mycoplasmal Diseases

(e.g., Mycoplasma gallisepticum (MG), M. synoviae (MS), Salmonella Pullorum / Gallinarum)

These diseases can often be managed or controlled in positive flocks to save the genetic line.

| Strategy | Mechanism & Application |

|—|—|

| Antimicrobial Treatment of Breeders | Administration of specific antibiotics (like tylosin, tiamulin, or tilmicosin) to the infected breeder flock. These drugs can significantly reduce the bacteria load in the reproductive tract and, critically, in the eggs, thus lowering the transmission rate to the chicks. However, antimicrobials generally do not eliminate the infection completely. |

| Egg Treatment | Heat Treatment (Thermotherapy): Briefly subjecting hatching eggs to specific high temperatures can eliminate bacteria and mycoplasma within the egg without killing the embryo. This is complex and requires precise control. |

| Hatching Egg Disinfection | Fumigation or Dipping: Immediately after collection, hatching eggs are meticulously disinfected (e.g., with formaldehyde gas or approved disinfectants) to eliminate surface contamination, preventing the spread of the pathogen from the shell into the egg content or to other chicks in the incubator/hatcher. |

| Phage Therapy (Novel/Research) | Bacteriophages (viruses that infect bacteria) are being researched as a targeted alternative to antibiotics. Phage application to positive breeders has shown promise in reducing the Salmonella load in the ovaries, oviducts, and eggs, thereby controlling vertical transmission. |

2. Management of Viral Diseases

(e.g., Avian Encephalomyelitis (AE), Avian Leukosis Virus (ALV), Marek’s Disease (MD))

Viral infections are more challenging to treat in the breeder, so the focus is primarily on maternal immunity and direct chick protection.

| Strategy | Mechanism & Application |

|—|—|

| Breeder Vaccination | Mass Vaccination: Vaccinating the breeder flock is done to ensure the hens develop high levels of antibodies (Maternal Antibodies – MAs). These MAs are transferred to the yolk and provide passive immunity to the chick for the first few weeks of life, protecting them from a lethal early infection (e.g., for AE). |

| Culling/Selection (ALV) | For viruses like Avian Leukosis, the most effective long-term control is a test-and-cull program. Breeders are routinely tested for the presence of the virus in their eggs, and positive-shedding hens are removed from the flock. This is the foundation of many eradication programs. |

| In-Ovo Vaccination | For specific viral diseases (most famously Marek’s Disease), the vaccine is injected directly into the developing embryo (typically at 18 days of incubation). This allows the immune system to start developing protection before the chick hatches, providing immediate defense against early horizontal exposure from the environment. |

3. Hatchery Management (Cross-Contamination Control)

A crucial factor is that a vertically-transmitted pathogen in one egg can quickly become horizontally-transmitted to hundreds of other clean chicks in the incubator/hatcher.

* Strict Biosecurity: Maintaining all-in/all-out systems, using dedicated, single-stage incubation machines for eggs from positive flocks, and rigorous disinfection protocols are mandatory to prevent cross-contamination.

* Segregation: Eggs and chicks from known positive flocks must be strictly segregated from disease-free flocks to prevent the horizontal spread of the disease.

In summary, while a positive breeder flock poses a significant risk, a multi-faceted approach involving medication, targeted culling, vaccination to boost maternal antibodies, egg treatment, and extremely high biosecurity standards can often succeed in producing healthy, uninfected progeny.Yes, it is possible to inhibit or significantly reduce the vertical transmission of diseases even when the breeder flock is positive. However, it is an intensive and complex process, and the specific strategies vary greatly depending on the type of disease (bacterial/mycoplasmal vs. viral).
The ultimate goal for primary breeders is typically eradication, but for commercial operations, the focus shifts to minimizing transmission and protecting the progeny.
Here are the primary methods used:
1. Management of Bacterial/Mycoplasmal Diseases
(e.g., Mycoplasma gallisepticum (MG), M. synoviae (MS), Salmonella Pullorum / Gallinarum)
These diseases can often be managed or controlled in positive flocks to save the genetic line.
| Strategy | Mechanism & Application |
|—|—|
| Antimicrobial Treatment of Breeders | Administration of specific antibiotics (like tylosin, tiamulin, or tilmicosin) to the infected breeder flock. These drugs can significantly reduce the bacteria load in the reproductive tract and, critically, in the eggs, thus lowering the transmission rate to the chicks. However, antimicrobials generally do not eliminate the infection completely. |
| Egg Treatment | Heat Treatment (Thermotherapy): Briefly subjecting hatching eggs to specific high temperatures can eliminate bacteria and mycoplasma within the egg without killing the embryo. This is complex and requires precise control. |
| Hatching Egg Disinfection | Fumigation or Dipping: Immediately after collection, hatching eggs are meticulously disinfected (e.g., with formaldehyde gas or approved disinfectants) to eliminate surface contamination, preventing the spread of the pathogen from the shell into the egg content or to other chicks in the incubator/hatcher. |
| Phage Therapy (Novel/Research) | Bacteriophages (viruses that infect bacteria) are being researched as a targeted alternative to antibiotics. Phage application to positive breeders has shown promise in reducing the Salmonella load in the ovaries, oviducts, and eggs, thereby controlling vertical transmission. |
2. Management of Viral Diseases
(e.g., Avian Encephalomyelitis (AE), Avian Leukosis Virus (ALV), Marek’s Disease (MD))
Viral infections are more challenging to treat in the breeder, so the focus is primarily on maternal immunity and direct chick protection.
| Strategy | Mechanism & Application |
|—|—|
| Breeder Vaccination | Mass Vaccination: Vaccinating the breeder flock is done to ensure the hens develop high levels of antibodies (Maternal Antibodies – MAs). These MAs are transferred to the yolk and provide passive immunity to the chick for the first few weeks of life, protecting them from a lethal early infection (e.g., for AE). |
| Culling/Selection (ALV) | For viruses like Avian Leukosis, the most effective long-term control is a test-and-cull program. Breeders are routinely tested for the presence of the virus in their eggs, and positive-shedding hens are removed from the flock. This is the foundation of many eradication programs. |
| In-Ovo Vaccination | For specific viral diseases (most famously Marek’s Disease), the vaccine is injected directly into the developing embryo (typically at 18 days of incubation). This allows the immune system to start developing protection before the chick hatches, providing immediate defense against early horizontal exposure from the environment. |
3. Hatchery Management (Cross-Contamination Control)
A crucial factor is that a vertically-transmitted pathogen in one egg can quickly become horizontally-transmitted to hundreds of other clean chicks in the incubator/hatcher.
* Strict Biosecurity: Maintaining all-in/all-out systems, using dedicated, single-stage incubation machines for eggs from positive flocks, and rigorous disinfection protocols are mandatory to prevent cross-contamination.
* Segregation: Eggs and chicks from known positive flocks must be strictly segregated from disease-free flocks to prevent the horizontal spread of the disease.
In summary, while a positive breeder flock poses a significant risk, a multi-faceted approach involving medication, targeted culling, vaccination to boost maternal antibodies, egg treatment, and extremely high biosecurity standards can often succeed in producing healthy, uninfected progeny.

[Muhammad Ahmad]

Vertically transmitted diseases in poultry are those passed directly from the parent bird (hen) to the offspring (chick) through the egg. This is a critical route of transmission for commercial poultry production, as the disease can be passed through entire breeding lines.

​The most common and economically significant vertically transmitted diseases in poultry are:

​Viral Diseases

• ​Avian Leukosis (ALV) / Lymphoid Leukosis: Caused by the Avian Leukosis Virus, particularly subtypes like ALV-J. It is responsible for tumors in internal organs and often has a long incubation period.
• ​Avian Encephalomyelitis (AE): A viral disease that can be transmitted through the egg. It primarily affects chicks, causing nervous signs like tremors (trembling) and muscular incoordination.

• ​Marek’s Disease (MD): While primarily spread horizontally through dander and dust, the virus can also be considered a vertical concern as the parent stock’s health and vaccination status directly impact the chicks’ protection.
• ​Fowl Adenoviruses (FAdVs): Associated with diseases like Inclusion Body Hepatitis (IBH) and Adenoviral Gizzard Erosion. Vertical transmission of the virus can establish a latent infection in the chick.

​Bacterial and Mycoplasmal Diseases

• ​Salmonella species:
  • ​**Pullorum Disease (caused by Salmonella Pullorum): A severe systemic disease in chicks that can be transmitted through the egg, where the bacteria lodge in the ovary of the hen.
  • ​Fowl Typhoid (caused by Salmonella Gallinarum): Similar to Pullorum disease, it is transmitted vertically and causes a severe systemic infection in older birds and chicks.

  .

  • ​Mycoplasma:
    • ​Mycoplasma gallisepticum (MG): Causes Chronic Respiratory Disease (CRD) in chickens and Infectious Sinusitis in turkeys.
    • ​Mycoplasma synoviae (MS): Causes Infectious Synovitis, which affects the joints, and can also lead to respiratory disease.

  ​Control and eradication programs for these diseases often focus on rigorous testing of breeder flocks, proper hygiene and sanitation in the hatchery, and strategic vaccination programs to prevent vertical transmission to the next generation.Vertically transmitted diseases in poultry are those passed directly from the parent bird (hen) to the offspring (chick) through the egg. This is a critical route of transmission for commercial poultry production, as the disease can be passed through entire breeding lines.
  ​The most common and economically significant vertically transmitted diseases in poultry are:
  ​Viral Diseases
  ​Avian Leukosis (ALV) / Lymphoid Leukosis: Caused by the Avian Leukosis Virus, particularly subtypes like ALV-J. It is responsible for tumors in internal organs and often has a long incubation period.
  ​Avian Encephalomyelitis (AE): A viral disease that can be transmitted through the egg. It primarily affects chicks, causing nervous signs like tremors (trembling) and muscular incoordination.
  ​Marek’s Disease (MD): While primarily spread horizontally through dander and dust, the virus can also be considered a vertical concern as the parent stock’s health and vaccination status directly impact the chicks’ protection.
  ​Fowl Adenoviruses (FAdVs): Associated with diseases like Inclusion Body Hepatitis (IBH) and Adenoviral Gizzard Erosion. Vertical transmission of the virus can establish a latent infection in the chick.
  ​Bacterial and Mycoplasmal Diseases
  ​Salmonella species:
  ​**Pullorum Disease (caused by Salmonella Pullorum): A severe systemic disease in chicks that can be transmitted through the egg, where the bacteria lodge in the ovary of the hen.
  ​Fowl Typhoid (caused by Salmonella Gallinarum): Similar to Pullorum disease, it is transmitted vertically and causes a severe systemic infection in older birds and chicks.
  ​Mycoplasma:
  ​Mycoplasma gallisepticum (MG): Causes Chronic Respiratory Disease (CRD) in chickens and Infectious Sinusitis in turkeys.
  ​Mycoplasma synoviae (MS): Causes Infectious Synovitis, which affects the joints, and can also lead to respiratory disease.
  ​Control and eradication programs for these diseases often focus on rigorous testing of breeder flocks, proper hygiene and sanitation in the hatchery, and strategic vaccination programs to prevent vertical transmission to the next generation.

[Muhammad Ahmad]

The two most prominent transboundary diseases in poultry are:

1. ​Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza (HPAI), also known as Bird Flu.

1. ​Newcastle Disease (ND).

​Transboundary Animal Diseases (TADs) are highly contagious or transmissible diseases that have the potential for very rapid spread, irrespective of national borders, causing serious socio-economic and sometimes public health consequences. Both Avian Influenza and Newcastle Disease fit this description for poultry.The two most prominent transboundary diseases in poultry are:
​Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza (HPAI), also known as Bird Flu.
​Newcastle Disease (ND).
​Transboundary Animal Diseases (TADs) are highly contagious or transmissible diseases that have the potential for very rapid spread, irrespective of national borders, causing serious socio-economic and sometimes public health consequences. Both Avian Influenza and Newcastle Disease fit this description for poultry.

[Muhammad Ahmad]

Very effective

[Bello Bashir]

feed mill’s main sections include receiving and storage, where raw materials are brought in and stored; ingredient processing, which involves grinding and screening ingredients to the correct particle size; batching and mixing, where ingredients are weighed and combined according to a formula; and finished product handling, where the mixed feed is pelletized, cooled, screened, and bagged. These sections work together in a process flow to create a uniform and nutritious animal feed.

[Rotimi]

Good information

[Rotimi]

Good information